Wood Siding vs. Composite: The Better Investment? Choosing the right siding for your home is a significant decision, impacting both aesthetics and long-term costs. This comprehensive comparison explores the key differences between wood and composite siding, examining initial investment, maintenance needs, durability, environmental impact, and resale value. We’ll delve into the pros and cons of each, helping you make an informed choice that aligns with your budget, lifestyle, and environmental priorities.
From the upfront cost of materials and installation to the long-term expenses of maintenance and repairs, we’ll analyze every aspect. We’ll also consider the aesthetic appeal, energy efficiency, and the potential impact on your home’s resale value. By the end of this analysis, you’ll have a clear understanding of which siding option best suits your needs.
Initial Cost Comparison
Choosing between wood and composite siding involves a significant financial decision. Understanding the upfront costs, encompassing both materials and labor, is crucial for making an informed choice. While composite siding often boasts higher initial investment, its long-term cost-effectiveness needs careful consideration against the potentially lower upfront cost but higher maintenance requirements of wood siding.
Upfront Costs of Wood and Composite Siding
The initial cost of siding installation is determined by several factors, including material selection, labor rates, and project complexity. The following table provides average price ranges per square foot in the United States, acknowledging that these figures can vary significantly based on geographic location, material quality, and contractor expertise. It’s essential to obtain multiple quotes from reputable contractors for accurate cost estimates specific to your project.
| Material | Material Cost ($/sq ft) | Labor Cost ($/sq ft) | Total Cost ($/sq ft) | Cost Per Square Foot ($/sq ft) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wood Siding (Cedar, Pine) | $3 – $8 | $5 – $15 | $8 – $23 | $8 – $23 |
| Composite Siding | $8 – $20 | $5 – $12 | $13 – $32 | $13 – $32 |
Factors Influencing Initial Cost Variations
Several factors significantly impact the initial cost of both wood and composite siding installations. These variations highlight the importance of obtaining detailed quotes that account for project-specific circumstances.
For wood siding, the type of wood significantly influences cost. Cedar and redwood, prized for their durability and aesthetic appeal, command higher prices than pine or less expensive options. The complexity of the project, such as intricate trim work or extensive detailing, also adds to the overall cost. Furthermore, the cost of labor varies geographically, with higher labor rates in urban areas compared to rural locations. Finally, the condition of the existing siding and the necessary preparation work (such as removing old siding) can add unexpected expenses.
Similarly, the initial cost of composite siding is subject to variations. Different manufacturers offer products with varying price points, reflecting differences in material composition, durability, and aesthetic features. Higher-end composite siding often mimics the appearance of natural wood more convincingly, resulting in a higher initial investment. The complexity of the installation, including the need for specialized tools or techniques, influences labor costs. Regional variations in labor rates also play a role, as do project-specific factors such as the need for extensive preparation work or specialized trim pieces.
Long-Term Maintenance
Choosing between wood and composite siding involves considering not only the upfront cost but also the long-term maintenance implications. Over a 20-year period, the cumulative cost of maintenance can significantly impact the overall investment. Understanding the maintenance requirements of each material is crucial for making an informed decision.
The following comparison outlines the expected maintenance needs for both wood and composite siding over two decades, factoring in repair types and frequency. This information will help homeowners assess the ongoing financial commitment associated with each option.
Wood Siding Maintenance
Wood siding, while aesthetically pleasing, demands consistent upkeep to maintain its beauty and structural integrity. Neglecting maintenance can lead to significant repair costs and even premature replacement.
- Repainting/Restining: Wood siding typically requires repainting or restaining every 3-7 years, depending on the climate, paint quality, and sun exposure. This is a labor-intensive process, with costs varying based on the size of the house and the chosen paint or stain. A 2,000 sq ft house might expect to spend $2,000-$5,000 per repainting or restaining, totaling $10,000 – $35,000 over 20 years.
- Caulk Replacement: Caulk around windows and doors degrades over time, requiring periodic replacement. This prevents water damage and maintains the siding’s weather resistance. The cost is relatively low per replacement but adds up over time. Expect to spend approximately $200-$500 every 5 years, totaling $800-$2,000 over 20 years.
- Repair of Rot and Insect Damage: Wood is susceptible to rot and insect infestation, particularly in damp climates. Repairing these issues can involve replacing damaged boards, treating the wood with insecticide, and applying protective coatings. Costs vary widely depending on the extent of the damage, potentially ranging from a few hundred dollars for minor repairs to thousands for extensive work. In a worst-case scenario, a section of siding might need complete replacement, adding significant expense.
- Cleaning: Regular cleaning with a pressure washer (avoiding excessive pressure to prevent damage) can help remove dirt, mildew, and algae. This helps to prolong the life of the paint or stain and prevents the buildup of organic matter that can contribute to rot. This is a relatively inexpensive task, potentially costing $100-$300 every 2-3 years, or $667-$2,000 over 20 years.
Composite Siding Maintenance
Composite siding generally requires less maintenance than wood, resulting in lower long-term costs. Its durability and resistance to rot, insects, and moisture significantly reduce the need for major repairs.
- Cleaning: Composite siding typically only needs occasional cleaning with soap and water or a pressure washer (using low pressure). This can be done as needed, usually every few years. The cost is minimal.
- Repair of Minor Damage: While durable, composite siding can be damaged by impacts. Minor scratches or dents can often be repaired with specialized fillers or patching compounds. Costs are usually low for these minor repairs. However, significant damage might necessitate replacement of damaged sections.
- Caulk Replacement: Similar to wood siding, caulk around windows and doors will eventually need replacing. The frequency is similar, but the overall cost might be slightly lower due to the lower labor intensity of replacing caulk on composite siding.
Durability and Lifespan
Choosing between wood and composite siding involves considering their respective lifespans and how well they withstand the elements. Both materials offer durability, but their strengths and weaknesses differ significantly, impacting their long-term viability and the overall cost of ownership. Understanding these differences is crucial for making an informed decision.
Wood siding, while a classic and aesthetically pleasing choice, is susceptible to various factors that can shorten its lifespan. Composite siding, a relatively newer option, offers enhanced resistance to some of these challenges but also presents its own set of vulnerabilities.
Lifespan Expectations Under Varying Weather Conditions
The lifespan of both wood and composite siding is heavily influenced by climate. In regions with harsh winters (frequent freeze-thaw cycles) and intense summers (high UV radiation and extreme heat), both materials will experience accelerated degradation. Wood siding, particularly in humid climates, is prone to rot and fungal growth. Composite siding, while more resistant to moisture damage, can still be affected by extreme temperature fluctuations, potentially leading to cracking or warping. For example, a cedar wood siding in a dry, temperate climate might last 30-50 years with proper maintenance, while the same siding in a consistently humid, subtropical environment could require replacement within 15-20 years. A high-quality composite siding, on the other hand, might boast a 30-50 year lifespan even in challenging climates, though its color may fade over time.
Vulnerabilities to Insects, Moisture, and UV Exposure
Wood siding is naturally susceptible to insect infestation, particularly termites and carpenter ants. Moisture intrusion, often through cracks or improperly sealed joints, can lead to rot and mold growth, significantly reducing the siding’s lifespan. Prolonged UV exposure causes fading and cracking, especially in untreated or poorly maintained wood. Composite siding, while resistant to insect damage and rot, is not entirely immune. Moisture can still penetrate poorly installed siding, leading to issues, and UV radiation can cause color fading, though typically less dramatically than with wood. For instance, pressure-treated lumber offers increased resistance to insects and rot, but it still requires regular inspection and maintenance. Some composite sidings incorporate UV inhibitors to mitigate color fading, prolonging their aesthetic appeal.
Impact of Installation Methods on Longevity
Proper installation is paramount for maximizing the lifespan of both wood and composite siding. For wood siding, meticulous attention to detail, including proper flashing and sealing around windows and doors, is essential to prevent moisture penetration. Using high-quality fasteners and ensuring proper spacing between boards prevents warping and cracking. Improper installation can significantly reduce the lifespan of wood siding, potentially leading to premature rot and insect infestation within a few years. Similarly, for composite siding, accurate measurements, proper fastening, and attention to sealing are crucial. Gaps in the installation can allow moisture to penetrate, leading to issues over time. For example, using galvanized nails instead of regular nails in wood siding can prevent rust stains and extend the siding’s life. Likewise, using the manufacturer’s recommended fasteners and installation techniques for composite siding ensures optimal performance and longevity.
Environmental Impact
Choosing between wood and composite siding involves considering the environmental implications of each material throughout its lifecycle, from manufacturing to disposal. Both options present unique challenges and benefits regarding their carbon footprint and sustainability. A comprehensive assessment requires careful consideration of factors such as material sourcing, manufacturing processes, energy consumption, and end-of-life management.
The environmental impact of wood and composite siding differs significantly. Wood siding, while a renewable resource, still requires harvesting, processing, and transportation, all of which contribute to its carbon footprint. Composite siding, on the other hand, is manufactured using a blend of materials, often including recycled plastics and wood fibers, resulting in a different set of environmental concerns related to the production and disposal of these components.
Manufacturing and Disposal Processes
The manufacturing process for wood siding generally involves less energy consumption than that of composite siding. However, the environmental impact of harvesting wood depends heavily on forestry practices. Sustainable forestry, which prioritizes replanting and minimizes habitat disruption, reduces the overall environmental impact. Conversely, composite siding manufacturing often requires more energy-intensive processes and involves the use of potentially harmful chemicals. Disposal also presents challenges; wood siding can be repurposed or composted, while composite siding often ends up in landfills, contributing to waste accumulation. The specific environmental impact varies greatly depending on the composition of the composite material and the availability of recycling options.
Carbon Footprint Comparison
A comprehensive lifecycle assessment is needed to accurately compare the carbon footprint of wood and composite siding. This would involve analyzing the energy used in manufacturing, transportation, installation, and disposal, as well as considering the carbon sequestration capacity of wood. Studies suggest that wood siding can have a lower carbon footprint overall, particularly when sourced from sustainably managed forests, because wood acts as a carbon sink, storing carbon dioxide throughout its lifespan. However, the carbon footprint of composite siding can be significantly reduced if recycled materials are used in its production. The precise comparison, however, varies based on factors such as the type of wood, the specific composite material used, and the distance of transportation. For instance, wood siding sourced locally from sustainably managed forests will generally have a lower carbon footprint than composite siding transported long distances.
Sustainability Considerations in Wood Sourcing
Sustainable sourcing of wood for siding is crucial for minimizing the environmental impact. This involves selecting wood from forests certified by organizations like the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), which ensures responsible forestry practices. FSC certification guarantees that the wood comes from forests managed to meet high environmental and social standards, promoting biodiversity, protecting endangered species, and preventing deforestation. Purchasing wood siding with FSC certification ensures that the material is sourced sustainably and contributes to responsible forest management. Consumers should prioritize purchasing from suppliers who can provide clear documentation of their wood’s origin and sustainability certifications. Ignoring sustainable sourcing practices can lead to deforestation, habitat loss, and increased carbon emissions.
Aesthetics and Design Options
Choosing between wood and composite siding involves careful consideration of aesthetic preferences. Both materials offer a wide range of visual possibilities, but their inherent characteristics lead to distinct design outcomes. Understanding these differences is crucial for achieving the desired look and feel for a home.
Wood siding provides a classic, natural appeal that is difficult to replicate. Its inherent variations in grain, color, and texture contribute to a unique, often rustic charm. Composite siding, on the other hand, aims for a more uniform appearance, although advancements in manufacturing have broadened its stylistic range considerably.
Color and Texture Variations
Wood siding offers a spectrum of natural colors, from the warm tones of cedar and redwood to the lighter hues of pine and fir. The natural texture of wood, with its visible grain and knots, adds depth and character. While staining and painting can alter the color, the underlying texture remains a defining feature. In contrast, composite siding comes in a wider array of manufactured colors, often mimicking the appearance of wood, but with a more consistent, less organic texture. Some composite sidings offer textured surfaces designed to replicate wood grain, but these are generally less varied than the natural variations found in real wood. The color consistency of composite siding can be both an advantage and a disadvantage depending on the desired aesthetic.
Design Examples
Example 1: A Craftsman-style home clad in cedar wood siding. Imagine a two-story home with a low-pitched gable roof, wide overhanging eaves, and exposed rafters. The cedar siding, stained a rich, warm brown, showcases the natural wood grain, creating a visually appealing contrast with the darker brown trim and stone foundation. The overall effect is one of rustic elegance, perfectly suited to the Craftsman style’s emphasis on natural materials and handcrafted details.
Example 2: A modern farmhouse featuring composite siding. Picture a single-story home with clean lines, large windows, and a simple gable roof. The composite siding, chosen in a light gray color with a subtle wood grain texture, provides a contemporary look that complements the home’s minimalist design. The consistent color and low-maintenance nature of the composite siding emphasize the modern aesthetic. The dark gray trim and white window frames provide a sharp contrast to the lighter siding.
Architectural Styles and Siding Suitability
Wood siding’s versatility allows it to complement a wide range of architectural styles, from traditional to rustic. Its natural warmth makes it particularly well-suited for Craftsman, Cape Cod, and Victorian homes. The ability to customize wood siding with various stains and finishes further enhances its adaptability. Composite siding, while less versatile in its ability to convey a truly organic feel, works well with contemporary, modern farmhouse, and even some transitional styles where a clean, low-maintenance exterior is desired. Its consistent color and texture are ideal for creating a streamlined, modern aesthetic. However, attempting to use composite siding on a highly ornate Victorian home might appear jarring and out of place.
Insulation and Energy Efficiency
Choosing between wood and composite siding involves considering not only aesthetics but also the impact on your home’s energy efficiency. Both materials offer varying degrees of insulation, influencing heating and cooling costs. The inherent properties of the materials, combined with installation techniques, significantly affect the overall R-value of your home’s exterior wall system.
The R-value, or thermal resistance, measures a material’s ability to resist heat flow. A higher R-value indicates better insulation, leading to lower energy bills. Wood siding, while not inherently a high-performing insulator, can contribute to a home’s overall energy efficiency when installed correctly, especially when coupled with proper insulation within the wall cavity. Composite siding, often manufactured with foam cores or other insulating materials, generally offers a higher R-value than wood siding alone, potentially leading to more significant energy savings.
R-Value and Energy Cost Impacts
The impact of R-value on energy costs is directly proportional. A higher R-value translates to less heat transfer through the siding, reducing the burden on your heating and cooling systems. For example, a home with siding offering an R-value of 4 might require significantly more energy to maintain a comfortable indoor temperature compared to a home with siding boasting an R-value of 8, especially in regions with extreme temperature fluctuations. This difference in energy consumption can be substantial, leading to noticeable savings on monthly energy bills over the lifespan of the siding. The actual cost savings will depend on factors such as climate, home size, and heating/cooling system efficiency. A homeowner in a colder climate will see a more dramatic reduction in energy costs with a higher R-value siding compared to someone in a milder climate.
Installation Techniques and Energy Efficiency
Proper installation is crucial for maximizing the energy efficiency of both wood and composite siding. For wood siding, ensuring a continuous air barrier behind the siding is essential to prevent air leakage. Gaps or improperly sealed areas can significantly reduce the effectiveness of the insulation within the wall cavity. This air barrier can be achieved through techniques such as using housewrap and proper caulking and sealing around windows and doors. Similarly, for composite siding, proper installation is critical to maintaining the integrity of the material’s insulating properties. Imperfect installation can create gaps, compromising the R-value and allowing air infiltration. In both cases, skilled installation is paramount to realizing the full energy-saving potential of the chosen siding material.
Warranty and Guarantees
Choosing between wood and composite siding involves considering not only the upfront cost and long-term maintenance but also the warranties offered by manufacturers. These warranties provide crucial protection against defects and can significantly impact the overall value proposition of each siding type. Understanding the specifics of these guarantees is essential for making an informed decision.
Warranty periods and coverage details vary considerably depending on the manufacturer and specific product line. However, some general comparisons can be made between wood and composite siding warranties. Factors such as installation quality and environmental conditions often play a significant role in whether a warranty claim is valid.
Warranty Periods for Wood and Composite Siding
Wood siding warranties typically cover defects in manufacturing for a shorter period, often ranging from 5 to 15 years, depending on the wood type and treatment. Composite siding manufacturers, on the other hand, frequently offer longer warranties, sometimes extending to 30 years or more, reflecting their engineered durability. This longer warranty period often covers both manufacturing defects and performance issues, such as fading or warping. For example, CertainTeed offers a 50-year limited warranty on its Cedar Impressions composite siding. However, it’s important to note that the specific terms and conditions of these warranties can vary substantially.
Factors that Void Warranties
Several factors can lead to the invalidation of a siding warranty, regardless of whether it’s wood or composite. Improper installation is a common cause. If the siding is not installed according to the manufacturer’s instructions, the warranty may be void. Damage caused by extreme weather events, such as hurricanes or hail, is typically excluded from coverage. Neglecting proper maintenance, such as failing to clean or repair minor damage promptly, can also affect warranty validity. Furthermore, using incompatible cleaning products or attempting DIY repairs that are not explicitly authorized by the manufacturer could also void the warranty. For example, using harsh chemicals to clean composite siding can damage the surface and invalidate the warranty.
Common Coverage Areas in Manufacturer Warranties
Most manufacturer warranties for both wood and composite siding typically cover defects in materials and workmanship. This means that if the siding is found to be faulty due to a manufacturing error, the manufacturer will usually repair or replace the defective material. Some warranties also cover issues like cracking, splitting, rotting (for wood), and fading or warping (for both materials, though more commonly associated with composite). However, it is crucial to carefully review the specific terms and conditions of each warranty, as coverage can vary widely. It’s advisable to keep a copy of the warranty certificate and any related documentation for future reference. The specific details of coverage, including limitations and exclusions, should be carefully considered before making a purchase decision.
Resale Value Impact
Choosing between wood and composite siding significantly impacts a home’s resale value. Buyers often associate different qualities and perceptions with each material, influencing their willingness to pay. Understanding these perceptions is crucial for homeowners considering a siding upgrade or for those building a new home.
The choice of siding material can influence a home’s perceived value and ultimately its selling price. While both wood and composite siding offer benefits, buyers tend to have distinct preferences that affect appraisal values. Factors like curb appeal, perceived maintenance needs, and the overall impression of quality all play a role.
Buyer Perceptions of Wood and Composite Siding
Wood siding, particularly when well-maintained, often conveys a sense of traditional charm and higher quality to potential buyers. It’s associated with classic aesthetics and a feeling of craftsmanship. However, the perception of higher maintenance needs can offset this positive perception for some buyers. Conversely, composite siding is often viewed as low-maintenance and durable, appealing to buyers prioritizing convenience and longevity. However, some buyers may perceive composite as less aesthetically pleasing or less prestigious than wood, potentially impacting their offer price.
Impact of Siding Choice on Home Appraisal
Appraisers consider a variety of factors when determining a home’s value, including the condition and type of siding. While there isn’t a universally agreed-upon numerical value added or subtracted for wood versus composite siding, studies suggest that homes with well-maintained wood siding might command a slightly higher price in certain markets, particularly those valuing historical or traditional architecture. Conversely, in markets where low-maintenance is a strong selling point, composite siding might not negatively impact the appraisal, especially if it’s a newer, high-quality product. For example, a recent appraisal in a suburban neighborhood showed a $5,000 difference between two comparable homes, with one featuring cedar wood siding and the other featuring a high-end composite alternative. The cedar wood home received the higher appraisal due to the perceived premium associated with the material in that specific market. However, in a different market focused on modern aesthetics and ease of maintenance, this difference might be negligible or even reversed. The overall condition of the siding, regardless of material, remains a critical factor in the appraisal.
Installation Process
Choosing between wood and composite siding involves careful consideration of the installation process, as it significantly impacts both the overall cost and the final outcome. The complexity, time commitment, required skills, and potential challenges differ substantially between the two materials.
Wood and composite siding installations share some similarities, such as the need for proper preparation of the underlying wall surface. However, the specifics of installation, including the tools and techniques employed, vary significantly. Understanding these differences is crucial for homeowners planning a siding project, allowing for accurate budgeting and realistic project timelines.
Wood Siding Installation
Installing wood siding is a more labor-intensive process that typically requires a higher level of skill and experience compared to composite siding. The process involves precise measuring, cutting, and fastening of individual siding boards to a prepared wall surface. Proper nailing techniques are essential to prevent damage to the wood and ensure a long-lasting, weather-resistant installation.
Tools and Skills Required for Wood Siding Installation
Successful wood siding installation necessitates a range of tools and specific skills. This includes, but is not limited to, measuring tapes, saws (circular saw, hand saw), drills, nail guns, levels, and various types of fasteners. Experience with carpentry and an understanding of proper nailing techniques are vital to avoid mistakes that can compromise the structural integrity and aesthetic appeal of the siding. A keen eye for detail is also necessary to ensure proper alignment and spacing of the boards.
Potential Challenges in Wood Siding Installation
Several challenges can arise during wood siding installation. Working with wood requires precision and care to avoid damaging the boards during cutting and installation. Maintaining consistent spacing and alignment can be demanding, particularly on larger projects. Furthermore, wood siding is susceptible to warping, cracking, and rotting if not properly treated and installed. Proper moisture management during and after installation is critical to prevent these issues. For example, improper flashing around windows and doors can lead to water damage and premature deterioration of the siding.
Composite Siding Installation
Composite siding installation is generally considered less demanding than wood siding. The panels are typically larger and easier to handle, often requiring fewer cuts and less precise fitting. However, proper preparation of the wall surface remains crucial for a successful installation.
Tools and Skills Required for Composite Siding Installation
While composite siding installation requires fewer specialized tools than wood siding, basic tools like measuring tapes, levels, drills, and cutting tools (such as a circular saw or a specialized composite siding cutter) are still necessary. While less carpentry expertise is required, understanding the manufacturer’s instructions and best practices for fastening and sealing is essential to guarantee a long-lasting installation. The use of appropriate fasteners is crucial to avoid damaging the composite material.
Potential Challenges in Composite Siding Installation
Despite its relative ease of installation, composite siding presents some unique challenges. The material can be more brittle than wood, making it susceptible to cracking or chipping if mishandled. Careful handling and precise cutting are essential to avoid damage. Additionally, proper sealing of seams and joints is crucial to prevent moisture penetration, which can lead to problems over time. For instance, failure to properly seal around windows and doors could allow water to infiltrate the wall system, potentially causing mold growth and structural damage.
Repair and Replacement Costs
Repairing or replacing damaged siding is an inevitable expense for any homeowner. The costs associated with these repairs can vary significantly depending on the type of siding, the extent of the damage, and the cost of labor in your region. Understanding these potential costs is crucial when weighing the initial investment and long-term expenses of choosing between wood and composite siding.
Repair and replacement costs for both wood and composite siding are influenced by several factors. These include the size and location of the damaged area (repairing a small section near ground level will be less expensive than replacing a large area high on the house), the severity of the damage (a simple scratch is far cheaper to fix than rot or significant impact damage), the availability of matching materials (finding an exact color and texture match for older wood siding can be challenging), and the cost of labor in your area (skilled labor is always more expensive). The complexity of the repair also plays a role; a simple patching job will be significantly less expensive than a full section replacement.
Repair and Replacement Cost Comparison
The following table provides a general comparison of repair and replacement costs for wood and composite siding. These are estimates and actual costs may vary widely depending on the factors mentioned above. It is always advisable to obtain multiple quotes from reputable contractors before undertaking any repairs or replacements.
| Damage Type | Wood Repair Cost (USD) | Composite Repair Cost (USD) | Replacement Cost (Both Materials, USD) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Minor Scratch/Dent | 25-75 | 50-100 | 100-300 per linear foot |
| Rot/Water Damage (Small Area) | 100-300 | 150-400 | 300-800 per linear foot |
| Impact Damage (Large Area) | 300-1000+ | 500-1500+ | 800-2500+ per linear foot |
| Pest Infestation (Wood Only) | Variable, often requires full replacement of affected area | N/A | 300-800 per linear foot |
Note: These are estimates per linear foot for replacement. The total cost will depend on the overall area requiring replacement. For example, replacing 10 linear feet of damaged siding would cost approximately $1000-$3000 for minor damage and significantly more for major damage. Labor costs can significantly inflate these figures, and the cost of specialized tools and materials should also be factored in. Pest infestation in wood siding can be extremely costly, potentially necessitating the replacement of large sections or even the entire siding.
Last Word
Ultimately, the “better” investment between wood and composite siding depends heavily on individual priorities and circumstances. While wood offers a classic, natural aesthetic and potential for higher resale value, it demands significant ongoing maintenance. Composite siding, though initially more expensive, boasts lower maintenance needs and greater durability. Careful consideration of factors like budget, climate, desired aesthetic, and long-term maintenance commitment is crucial for making the right decision. Weighing the pros and cons presented here will empower you to choose the siding that best fits your home and your future.